John of Capistrano 1386-1456
John of Capistrano (or Giovanni da Capestrano) was a monk who combated
heretics, and who in later life led crusaders in the Balkans, contributing
to a significant military victory over the Turks at Belgrade.
John was born in Capistrano, in the diocese of Sulmona, in the Abruzzi,
central Italy. He was the son of a (probably Frankish) knight in the service
of Louis I of Anjou, King of Naples, who died when John was an infant.
John seemed set for a career as a magistrate and politician, and embarked
upon this path after studying law in Perugia. In 1412 Ladislas of Naples
(a vassal of the Pope who had an uneasy relationship with his overlord)
appointed John as governor of Perugia. In 1416, war broke out between
Perugia and Sigismondo Malatesta (a member of a powerful family of the
Romagna and a notorious tyrant according to his enemies). John was sent
on an embassy to organize a truce; instead he found himself a prisoner
of Malatesta.
John apparently underwent a religious conversion while in prison, deciding
to put aside his recently wedded wife (he claimed that the marriage was
unconsummated and obtained a dispensation to enter religion). In October
of the same year he became a Franciscan friar of the Observant branch,
having returned to Perugia. He became a disciple of the preacher and theologian
Bernardino of Siena (1380-1444), with whom he worked to reform the Observant
Franciscan Order. In time John earned a reputation as a formidable preacher
in his own right, and was ordained in 1425. He was also known for strict
asceticism and adherence to Catholic doctrine. He embarked on preaching
tours of Italy and later of central and eastern Europe, drawing considerable
crowds. He also wrote tracts against heresy.
Though he often acted as an Inquisitor and arbiter of Orthodoxy, John
of Capistrano came under suspicion of heresy himself (along with his mentor
Bernardino) for apparently over-venerating the Holy Name of Jesus. In
1429 he defended himself against such charges in Rome, and was eventually
acquitted by a conclave of Cardinals. Thereafter he was commissioned as
a representative of Popes Eugene IV and Nicolas V, preaching in Milan
and Burgundy against the rival Pope (antipope) Felix V. Later, in 1451,
he toured the Holy Roman Empire preaching against the heresies of the
proto-Protestant Hussites. The Hussites were the followers of John Huss,
who had been burned at the stake for heresy in 1415. His followers were
on the receiving end of one of the last of the Papal crusades directed
within Christendom. (Huss himself had been critical of Papal crusades
and had condemned the crusade called against Ladislas of Naples and the
use of sale of indulgences to fund it. The crusade against the Hussites
degenerated into a civil war in Czechoslovakia and Bohemia in the 1430s
and 40s). Travelling widely John of Capistrano took a hard line towards
dissent. As well as condemning the Hussites he persecuted the Fraticelli
(Spiritual Franciscans- who had broken from the mainstream Order over
an argument about ecclesiastical poverty, arguing that clerics should
not own property). Some of his preaching may also have provoked attacks
against Jews, especially in Germany and Poland.
During this period the advance of the Ottoman Turks was causing increasing
anxiety throughout Christian Europe. The extent of the threat became more
apparent after the Ottoman victories at Nicopolis in 1319 and Varna in
1444, and especially after the fall of Constantinople in May 1453. The
Turkish Sultan, Mehmet II was not content with seizing the last remnant
of Byzantium, but had his sights on the conquest of Eastern Europe, planning
to advance through the Balkans. The Turkish threat provoked a resurgence
in Crusading rhetoric in Europe, and even a degree of activity. In 1454
John was present at a Diet (court) in Frankfurt, which discussed the Turkish
problem. In 1456 Pope Calixtus III equipped galleys to support the war
in the west, as Mehmet II and his hordes swept into Serbia, defeating
Skanderbeg, the local Christian commander, at Berat. The Turks soon invested
the strategic city of Belgrade. The Pope tried to unite the antagonistic
Christian factions of the region in order to meet the threat. In February
at the Diet of Buda (Budapest) John of Capistrano, by now very aged, was
commissioned by Cardinal Cravajal to preach the crusade to raise forces
to rescue Belgrade, which the Turks besieged in July. The Cardinal bestowed
on the Franciscan a crucifix blessed by the Pope, which John was to carry
throughout his preaching tour, and into battle. John's charismatic sermons
recruited volunteers primarily from Hungary, but also from Austria, Germany,
Poland and Balkan countries, although most were poor and ill-equipped.
John of Capistrano's forces (upon whom he imposed pious conduct and discipline)
managed to unite with the Serbs/Hungarians under John (Janos) Hunyadi,
the illegitimate son of the King of Hungary. The Franciscan persuaded
Hunyadi not to surrender the city despite the overwhelming odds. (Hunyadi's
already had a heroic record of campaigning against the Turkish invaders).
On 15 July Hunyadi's flotilla broke the Turkish naval blockade- despite
the failure of the Papal fleet to materialize. On the night of 21/22 July
the crusaders and the citizens of Belgrade beat off the Turkish full assault
on the walls. Subsequently the Christians captured the Turkish gun batteries
as the Sultan was preparing to retreat. The historian Norman Housley attributes
the salvation of Belgrade and all of Hungary to John of Capistrano's faith
and courage. According to Promontorio de Campis, a Genoese noble at the
Sultan's Court, the Turks lost 28 field canons, 100 galleys and 13,000
men, all to a rag-tag army led by a seventy-year-old monk. Perhaps as
much credit belongs to Hunyadi's military leadership, however. It seems
between them, they believed that with Western support it would be possible
to drive the Turks from Europe and to recover Constantinople. It was not
to be, of course. Both John of Capistrano and John Hunyadi died of the
plague in late 1456. The victory at Belgrade was not consolidated, but
it had shown that the Turks could be beaten.
As Capistrano was a great preacher and his army was not comprised of nobles
or knights, he may be compared in some ways to Peter the Hermit, the charismatic
leader of the First Crusade. However it is debatable whether the relief
of Belgrade classes as a crusade in the true sense. It was defensive,
and most of the 'crusaders' were from countries directly threatened by
Turkish expansion. The element of religious pilgrimage, central to the
earlier crusades was lacking. In any event, the victory only secured a
temporary reprieve. Turks returned in strength to the region in the following
decades. Belgrade fell under Ottoman rule in 1521, and much of Hungary
also succumbed. Ottoman expansionism remained a serious threat to European
security and freedom, a threat that only began to diminish after their
maritime defeat at Lepanto in 1571.
John of Capistrano became a celebrated figure in the Catholic Church,
meanwhile, his life regarded as a story of heroic virtue. He was beatified
in 1694 and canonised thirty years later.
Sources:
Harry H Hazard (ed) Kenneth M. Selton (series ed.) A History of the
Crusades, Vol III. University of Winsconsin Press, 1975
Norman Housley, The Later Crusades, Oxford University Press, 1992
Jonathan Riley-Smith (ed), Atlas of the Crusades, Times Books,
1991
Online:
Catholic Encyclopedia: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08452a.htm
Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_Capistrano
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